Monday, January 27, 2020
Weber’s Formal and Substantive Rationality
Weber’s Formal and Substantive Rationality Weber’s Rationality Concepts and Scientific Management and Human Relation Theory Introduction Max Weber (1864-1920) was a German sociologist, philosopher and economist. His work of rationalization and rationality has influenced the entire sociology discipline. His work of rationality introduces four kinds of rationality, including theoretical, practical, formal and substantive rationality. This paper focuses on the formal and substantive rationality. Weber made distinctions between formal rationality and substantive rationality in his works. Formal rationality mainly refers to rational calculation determined by rules, regulations or laws, and the extend to an action occurs as an outcome of quantitative calculations. In terms of formally rational systems, the primary concern within the system is maximize profitability, this often results into disregardful humanity. On the other hand, substantive rationality is defined as choice of means to ends guided by a set of human values. It concerns several criteria of final ends and disregards whatever they are, it measures the outcomes of the economic-oriented action. This paper is to introduce Weber’s formal and substantive rationality concepts, then to analyze how these two concepts are related to scientific management and human relation theory. Formal rationality Weber defines formal rationality as the degree to an action happens as a result of quantitative and appropriate calculations (Weber, 1987). Formal rationality involves the rational calculation of means to ends that are founded on laws, rules and regulations apply in general (Kalberg, 1980). It also relates to a structure including legal, economic, scientific spheres and the bureaucratic domination with industrialization (Karlberg, 1980). Weber suggests an action is rational because it has a consistent structure, all of its elements point at one direction, no one counteracts another. Therefore, there exists a consistency in its structure, and this is aided by formalization. Formalization can render several contradictions visible through a mechanical form of simplification. Thus, formal calculation is a kind of rationalization which focuses on the process not the result, it emphasizes how the decision is being made rather than how the results are achieved (Rona-Tas,2007). Formal rationality exists in large-scale structures such as bureaucracy and capitalist economy. And these structures and their regulations and laws determine the means to ends (Ritzer, 2005). Since formal calculation is determined by rules, regulations or laws, formal rationality often leads to decisions that are without regard of the needs and values of persons, it may imply that substantive rationality is unnecessary (Ritzer, 2005). An action oriented to rules, regulations or laws is a formal calculation in reference to enacted regulations and opposed to decision making in reference to the personal values (Kalberg, 1980). For instance, the needs of a formally rational economic system are emphasized on actors who can outbid others not because their needs are more important or contain more personal values, but because they have lots of money. In this economic system, making money is the major concern rather than humanity concerns (Ritzer, 2005). Weber (1968) argues, â€Å"decisive are the need for competitive survival and the conditions of the labor, money and commodity markets; hence matter-of-fact considerations that are simply nonethical determine individual behavior and interpose impersonal forces between the persons involved (pp. 1186).†Therefore, capitalistic system is a formally rational economic system, as the major concern of an organization within the system is to make profit constantly. The entrepreneurs disregard the workers’ basic human values and dominate them by enslaving them in the formally rational economic system (Weber, 1975). Formal rationality dominated in industrialized, modern and especially Western world. Weber foresaw that formal rationality would replace other kinds of rationality in the Western world. He also argued that substantive rationality would fade away and people would march forward to formal rationality instead. So, people’s actions are no longer guided by personal values but simply follow the regulations, rules and laws (Ritzer, 2005). Substantive rationality Substantive rationality refers to the clusters of values that lead people in their everyday lives, particularly in how they choose the means to ends. It involves the choice of means to ends guided by a set of human values. For example, Calvinism is when one feels one is fulfilling a duty and Calvinism attempts to rationalize the world in ethical ways and consistent with God’s commandments (Weber, 1958). Other examples include friendship, communism, hedonism Buddhism etc (Ritzer, 2005). When the clusters of values are consistent with particular value postulates that actors prefer, they are considered to be rational (Kalberg, 1980). In terms of economy, on the opposed side of formal rationality, Weber sees substantive rationality as an action that emphasizes on outcomes, an action can be rational also because it reaches successful ends. Therefore, substantive rationality means the success or failure that due to actions are driven by economical orientation in order to achieve final objectives that can be economic or non-economic, for instance, justice and equality (Weber, 1987). That is to say, substantive rationality is relevant to economic action in particular. So, substantive rationality involves a choice of means to ends leaded by some larger system of human values (Ritzer, 2005). Substantive rationality orders action into patterns directly on the basis of a past, present or potential value postulate, instead of just a calculation of means to ends and solutions to routine problems (Weber, 1968). Unlike formal rationality which has just a single value, such as making profit or fulfilling duties, substantive rationality relates to a value postulate which connotes clusters of values that are different in terms of comprehensiveness, content and internal consistency. Therefore, substantive rationality is a manifestation of a person’s capacity for value-rational action (Kalberg, 1980). Substantively rational system do not limit itself to purely follow formal and unambiguous fact or act according to goal-oriented rational calculation with the technical method, it concerns several criteria of ultimate ends regardless they are ethical, utilitarian, feudal etc, it measures the outcomes of the economic action, whereas formally rational emphasizes correct calculati on that may against substantive or value rationality (Weber, 1978). However, Weber did not make it clear that whether certain kinds of results might compound formal calculation, or some ends are more tend to be formal rationality than others. Scientific management Formal rationality Scientific management theory was originally proposed in the book of Fredrick Taylor’s (1856-1915), which was published in 1991 and called ‘The Principles of Scientific Management’. The fundamental goal of scientific management was to maximize workers’ productivity and profitability ultimately. This principles of scientific management theory is accordance with Weber’s formal rationality concept. For instance, Taylor (1991) argues workers should be trained and managed under scientific methods, in order to improve their efficiency. Taylor (1991) also explains this scientific management method in details, that is: managers should abandon the old rule of thumb method and adopt a scientific method for every task; they must use scientific method to train workers, and use rules and regulations to ensure workers follow the instructions of the scientific method they develop. Taylor’s scientific management methods can be considered as the concept of Webe r’s formal calculation, and the objective of that concept is to achieve great profitability. Also, Taylor (1991) thinks the best management should be supervised and ensured under regulations and rules. This is also a formally rational system according to Weber’s point of view of formal rationality. In addition, Taylor (1991) assumes that workers can be motivated and only can be stimulated by economic drives. He designed a salary structure and principle, that was to pay a high salary to a worker who accomplishes his work more efficiently or faster. Furthermore, Taylor (1991) suggests to pay a worker with extra bonus or premium, if the worker finishes his work successfully and productively. Henry Ford implemented Taylor’s scientific management methods and developed a model based on economic expansion and mass production with technological mechanisms (Tolliday and Zeitlin, 1987). Therefore, scientific management theory is driven by achieving great profitability, which is aligned with Weber’s formal rationality concept. Weber saw the triumph of formal rationality in the American system of ‘Scientific management’, as Weber (1978) argues, scientific management uses suitable measurement methods to calculate worker’s productivity and maximize profitability, the way these measurements calculate worker’s productivity is like that of any material means of production. He argues that scientific management was based on rational calculation and improvement of work performance with scientific training methods, and the worker is totally adjusted to the demands of the machines and is shorn of his inherent rhythm through creation of an optimal economy of physical effort. Human Relations theory Substantively rational Human relation theory proposes that an organization is a social system, people in an organization are interdependent. Human relation theory argues that best management is to focus on encouraging people to work, to give workers psychological and social needs and comforts, that way, they would work with more efficiency and effectiveness. Human relation theory is substantively rational as it emphasizes to maximize efficiency and productivity through a set of human values. The basic suggestion of human relation theory was developed through experiments and interviews, the most famous researcher is Elton Mayo, who identified the importance of human values in organizations. Through Hawthorne experiment, Mayo found out that the fundamental factor affects productivity and efficiency is the worker. The workers who engaged in the experiment realized they were concerned by managers and colleagues, and that increased their belongingness, this belongingness changed the worker’s entire value concept, encouraged them to improve their working efficiency. Therefore, Mayo suggested that workers also want social needs and interests, and they cannot be seen as being economically motivated anymore as how they were regarded by Taylorism (Rose, 2005). Thus, human relation theory is an implementation of substantive rationality in We ber’s point of view. Then, human relation theory is related to substantive rationality as it suggests that there is informal communication within an organization. In the study of bank wiring room, a small group of male workers were to produce electrical components. That group emerged to set informal norms that were enforced by peer pressure and an informal leader. The study indicates that workers were not only motivated by economic force but also the informal norms and communications within the organization. Thus, it is more important than just following formal side such as regulations, rules and official hierarchy that formal rational system does (Rose, 2005). However, the human relation theory is argued to be formal rationality as well. The initial impetus for the Hawthorne experiments was to improve worker’s efficiency and productivity and its management was to control physical variables, the idea was informed by the tradition of scientific management (Rose, 2005). It is also argued that human relation theories are embedded with connotation of rational organization and preference of scientific method (Ross-Smith and Kornberger, 2004). This could be understood since Weber did not clarify whether certain kinds of results might compound formal rationality. Conclusion This paper explains Weber’s formal and substantive rationality, and uses these two concepts to analyze scientific management and human relation theory. The paper summarizes that scientific management theory is with preference of Weber’s formal rationality concept, as scientific management theory focuses on managing organizations with scientific methods and formal calculations to improve workers’ productivity and to maximize organizations’ profitability. Whereas human relation theory is relevant to both substantive and formal rationality, because human relation theory emphasizes on principles guided by sets of human values such as social needs and psychological comforts etc. In addition, because within organizations adopts human relation theory, there exists informal norms and communications, which are more important than rules, regulations or hierarchy. At last but not least, human relation theory was originally designed to maximize efficiency and producti vity, and to control physical variables, that was in line with the idea of scientific management theory. Reference List: Kalberg, S. (1980). Max Webers Types of Rationality: Cornerstones for the Analysis of Rationalization Processes in History. The American Journal of Sociology, vol. 85, no. 5, pp. 1145-1179 Muchinsky, P. M. (2006). Psychology Applied to Work. Eighth edition. Boston: Cengage Learning. Ritzer, G. (2005). The Weberian theory of rationalization and the McDonaldization of contemporary society. In: Peter Kivisto (ed.) Illuminating social life: Classical and contemporary theory revisited. Sage. Rona-Tas, A. (2007). The Three Modalities of Rationality and Their Contradictions in Post-Communist Consumer Credit Markets. In Jens Beckert, Rainer Diaz-Bone and Heiner Ganssmann eds. Mà ¤rkte als soziale Strukturen. Campus Verlag, Frankfurt/New York. Rose, N. (2005). Human Relations Theory and People Management. European Management Journal, vol. 34, pp. 43-62. Ross-Smith, A., and Kornberger, M. (2004). Gendered Rationality? A Genealogical Exploration of the Philosophical and Sociological Conceptions of Rationality, Masculinity and Organization. Gender, Work and Organization, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 280-305 Taylor, F. W. (1991). The Principles of Scientific Management. New York, NY, US and London, UK: Harper Brothers Tolliday, S. and Zeitlin, J. (1987). The Automobile Industry and its Workers: Between Fordism and Flexibility. New York: St.Martins Press. Weber, M. (1958). The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Translated by Talcott Parsons. New York: Scribners. Originally: (1920) 1972. pp. 1-206 in Gesam- melte Aufsaetze zur Religionssoziologie (hereafter GARS). Vol. 1. Tubingen: Mohr. Weber, M. (1968). Economy and Society. Edited by Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich. New York: Bedminister. Originally: (1921) 1976. Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft. Edited by Johannes Winckelmann. Tubingen: Mohr Weber, M. (1975). Roscher and Knies: The Logical Problems of Historical Economics. Translated with an introduction by Guy Oakes. New York: Free Press. Originally: (1922) 1973. pp. 1-145 in WL Weber, M. (1978). Economy and Society. Berkeley: California University Press
Sunday, January 19, 2020
Solitude and Isolation in One Hundred Years of Solitude :: One Hundred Years of Solitude
Solitude and Isolation in One Hundred Years of Solitude            "†¦Races condemned to 100 years of solitude did not have a second opportunity on earth." These powerful last words of the novel One Hundred Years of Solitude ring true. The book demonstrates through many examples that human beings cannot exist in isolation. People must be interdependent in order for the race to survive.            Solitude. Examples are found of this idea throughout the one-hundred-year life of Macondo and the Buendia family. It is both an emotional and physical solitude. It is shown geographically, romantically, and individually. It always seems to be the intent of the characters to remain alone, but they have no control over it. To be alone, and forgotten, is their destiny.            The novel begins with geographic isolation. Jose Arcadio Buendia shouts, "God damn it! Macondo is surrounded by water on all sides!" Whether it is, in truth, an island is irrelevant. The town believed itself to be cut off from the rest of the world.  In addition, Jose Arcadio Buendia and Ursula are looking for solitude. The founding of Macondo was a result of escaping Jose Arcadio Buendia's murder of Prudencio Aguilar. Aguilar's ghost haunted them, eventually forcing them to retreat.            The family seems to remain very involved within itself. Much of this is Spanish culture. In Spanish-speaking countries, it is not uncommon to find many generations of the same family living in one house. The Buendia house always has various relatives within it. Yet, this is not the only explanation. The incest of the family is a theme throughout the novel, and is a significant factor in the solitude of this family. If a family rarely turns to others to branch out, it eventually becomes completely turned in upon itself: isolated and detached.            Occasionally, the family poisoned with the fate of solitude does reach out. Those who interact with this family share in its unfortunate fate. First to Pilar Ternera, the sexual companion of two of the Buendia boys. Following this sexual interaction, Pilar spends the rest of her life alone. The same pattern is seen with Petra Cotes, simply with another generation. Another example is demonstrated by Remedios Moscote. She is another outsider, paired with Aureliano Buendia. Soon after their marriage she dies unexpectedly and violently. Solitude and Isolation in One Hundred Years of Solitude :: One Hundred Years of Solitude Solitude and Isolation in One Hundred Years of Solitude            "†¦Races condemned to 100 years of solitude did not have a second opportunity on earth." These powerful last words of the novel One Hundred Years of Solitude ring true. The book demonstrates through many examples that human beings cannot exist in isolation. People must be interdependent in order for the race to survive.            Solitude. Examples are found of this idea throughout the one-hundred-year life of Macondo and the Buendia family. It is both an emotional and physical solitude. It is shown geographically, romantically, and individually. It always seems to be the intent of the characters to remain alone, but they have no control over it. To be alone, and forgotten, is their destiny.            The novel begins with geographic isolation. Jose Arcadio Buendia shouts, "God damn it! Macondo is surrounded by water on all sides!" Whether it is, in truth, an island is irrelevant. The town believed itself to be cut off from the rest of the world.  In addition, Jose Arcadio Buendia and Ursula are looking for solitude. The founding of Macondo was a result of escaping Jose Arcadio Buendia's murder of Prudencio Aguilar. Aguilar's ghost haunted them, eventually forcing them to retreat.            The family seems to remain very involved within itself. Much of this is Spanish culture. In Spanish-speaking countries, it is not uncommon to find many generations of the same family living in one house. The Buendia house always has various relatives within it. Yet, this is not the only explanation. The incest of the family is a theme throughout the novel, and is a significant factor in the solitude of this family. If a family rarely turns to others to branch out, it eventually becomes completely turned in upon itself: isolated and detached.            Occasionally, the family poisoned with the fate of solitude does reach out. Those who interact with this family share in its unfortunate fate. First to Pilar Ternera, the sexual companion of two of the Buendia boys. Following this sexual interaction, Pilar spends the rest of her life alone. The same pattern is seen with Petra Cotes, simply with another generation. Another example is demonstrated by Remedios Moscote. She is another outsider, paired with Aureliano Buendia. Soon after their marriage she dies unexpectedly and violently.
Saturday, January 11, 2020
African-American Civil Rights in the Years 1950 to 1962 Essay
Explain how far the views in Source B differ from those in Source A in relation to President Eisenhower and the desegregation of education. Both sources illustrate Eisenhower’s negative opinion on desegregation in schools. Both criticise and portray Eisenhower’s intolerance of black people as Source states Eisenhower’s comment that white people ‘ are concerned about is that their sweet little girls are not required to sit in school alongside some big overgrown Negroes’ . Eisenhower’s ‘sympathises’; the south as he originates there himself, the intolerance could be considered to be part of the South’s culture and behaviour to be intolerant of the black people, it is arguable that this effected Eisenhower’s political judgement . The fact that Eisenhower came from military background after spending 44 years of his life in service, would have influenced his decisions and opinions on desegregation as military camps were segregated and Eisenhower would have been use to this system. He once again agues from the South’s point of view in Source B, ‘I don’t believe you can change the hearts of men with laws and decisions’ this once again supports the point I made before. Evidence of his intolerance was regretting appointing Earl Warren as chief of justice ‘the biggest damn fool mistake I ever made’ he obviously was very against the decision and never wanted desegregation. The similarities continue as both sources shows the reluctance of helping the black people through desegregation. Source A comments that he didn’t show a clear support for the Supreme Court decision to desegregate schools, ‘his silence encouraged massive resistance’. His political and personal opinions were colliding with each other making his actions limited. Source B shows proof of his reluctance also as it stated three years later he finally protects the little rock 9 with a federal army in 1957. This was the first time Eisenhower showed support of segregation however; it was a ‘weak act’ from Eisenhower. It could be possible that he felt that it was his study as the president not himself supporting civil rights for the black people. However, the sources do differ in the fact that source B states a more positive view on Eisenhower even thought it was considered ‘weak’. As already stated Eisenhower While in presidency did not actively support desegregation and had reservations about the Brown decision, he understood his constitutional responsibility to uphold the federal authority and the law. Eisenhower ordered federal troops to guard and Little Rock and protect black students as they walked to school. He therefore became the first president since Reconstruction to use federal troops to protect the rights of African Americans. As Source A’s tone is very negative as it quotes intolerant views on the African Americans, it insinuates that Eisenhower is very against African Americans being part of a ‘white society’ this contrast with the little rock 9 as he aids the black people into the school, after his comments it would been unlikely to help the black people but he does. To conclude: source A and B are very similar as they both voice the intolerance and his lack of support Eisenhower gave to the African-Americans. I agree with the source as from my own knowledge he was very against civil rights because of his Sothern influence. His views on desegregation was transparent from his actions and that’s what source and B illustrate (12 Marks) (B) Use Source A, B and C and your own knowledge. How important was the Supreme Court in the development of African-American civil rights in the years 1950 to 1962? The Supreme Court is the highest federal court in the US, consisting of nine justices and taking judicial precedence over all other courts in the nation. The Supreme Court would have benefited every African- American with their decisions of passing and lifting laws if they succeeded in winning their cases. It allowed them to have legal rights with in the country and legally be equal to the white people. However, the self-esteem of the African Americans was low due to the intolerance of the white people therefore figures such as Rosa Parks, Martin Luther King and support of political figures such as Kennedy allowed them to be brave and a sense of pride in gaining equality. Therefore, the Supreme Court could be considered less important than other figures and factors that occurred between 1950 and 1962. Source A and B discuss the Brown vs. Topeka’s Board of Education verdict in 1954. The Supreme Court passed the law of desegregated schools by the chief of Justice Earl Warren. He was criticised for his decision such as President Eisenhower, who had shared his annoyance with Warren by stating that is was the ‘biggest damn fool mistake he ever made’. The silence of Eisenhower’s support on desegregation caused massive resistance along with the indirect deadline for when desegregation is to commence. Hence, Brown 2 in 1955 was the attempt to get a clearer deadline than before. However, disappointingly the verdict was ‘with all deliberate speed’ it was still vague and prolonged the wait for desegregation. The Supremes’ role in this particular situation helped civil rights as it declared more equality within America however turned to a hindrance as it become a battle of when it will happen. The decision also caused further problems for the African- Americans as Little Rock complied with the high court’s laws and decided to desegregate there all white school. The NAACP submitted nine students originally to join the school and gradually bring more in and settled them slowly. However, it wasn’t that simply as the 9 students went to enter their school they was verbally abused and tormented by the white southerners, Eisenhower had to submit federal assistance to help them into school , this is stated in source B as it had taken 3 years to show any support from Eisenhower and the south to finally accept desegregation . Eisenhower’s federal involvement was then became the first president since Reconstruction to use federal troops to protect the rights of African Americans. However, since Brown vs. education Source C states that McLaurin vs. Oklahoma rules that universities too have to follow the desegregation law and that you ‘could not provide different treatment to a student solely because of his/her race’. This proves that the Supreme Court was furthering African American rights through all levels of education making them equal and educated. This is another influence the Supreme Court had over monumental changes for the African Americans and the society around them. However, it is arguable that the Supreme Court only assisted the figures and events that immensely changed civil rights for the African Americans. Events such as the Montgomery Bus boycott in 1956 were a political and social protest. after the arrest of Rosa parks African Americans were ready to take action and regain some equality and raise the issue of how wrong it is to make a ‘tired, old lady’ to move, even if it wasn’t entirely true. The boycott was led by the group the MIA (Montgomery Improvement Association) Saturday 3rd December the black community supported each other as a lot of people avoided the busses and had to take rides with other people in the community, even though it was difficult the supporters of the cause enthusiastically agreed to continue the boycott until there was justice. The success of the black people boycotting led to economic stress were the issue of segregation would be over. The fact that one event, encourage African Americans to stand for their rights influenced and uncovered the most influential figures in civil right history and gained justice from their efforts. This is repeated again the 1960 in the Greensboro sit-in’s when African Americans refuse to move to from their seats in the Woolworths store. Their numbers increased in support and was watched by the world; even Eisenhower voiced his opinions on the matter. These nonviolent protests allowed black people to become a part of changing their future and not relying on court cases and individuals to get them there. Arguably even though they gained great success the black people didn’t have any legal hold on desegregating the bus system, thus the Browder vs. Gayle case. The Supreme Court upheld the district court’s decision in making bus’s desegregated. Without the confirmation from the Supreme Court all the black people’s efforts would have resulted to nothing without the confirmation of the Supreme Court. Rosa parks is seen in our modern day history as an inspirational civil rights leader. Her story influenced thousands of African Americans to boycott buses and gain equality. However, her image of being a ‘hard working, old, fragile women’ who wanted to rest her feet after a long day isn’t true at all. She had been an active protester and NAACP member for years and probably planned this protest to gain publicity and change. Due to her protest Martin Luther King was noticed as a civil rights figure, he had been watched from all over the world and from then on seen as the leading civil rights leader. His efforts in the SCLC created in 1957 after the Montgomery bus boycott, helped the southern African Americans who suffered from great intolerance . However, once again their efforts amounted to achieving the legalisation of equality, without the Supreme Court all their efforts went to nothing. To conclude: even though Martin Luther King is seen as the saviour of the African Americans in gaining equality and is still admired in our modern day society, it is the supreme court that allowed them legally to be treated as equals and live the lives they should live. However, without the efforts and protests the Supreme Court would never have considered to pass or all the African Americans to have the equality they gained through their efforts. Therefore, the other factors that influenced African Americans development on civil rights were more important than the Supreme Court. (2A) Explain why school were not immediately desegregated after the verdict in the Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education case of 1954 *  Earl Warren passed desegregation in 1954 in the Brown vs. Topeka Board of education. This was to end segregation. The NAACP appointed Thurgood to take the case and won with Earl Warren’s confirmation However, Warren didn’t set the deadline when schools should be desegregated. This prolonged desegregation and led to the court case Brown 2 in 1955 to gain directness on when desegregation will commence .However the verdict remained vague commenting that desegregation should happen with ‘all deliberate speed’ allowing desegregation, once again to be prevented from racial diversity in schools. This suggests that the Supreme Court was reluctant to desegregate schools fully due to Eisenhower’s silence and the South’s reluctance to do so. Other than the Cooper vs. Aaron case, the southern manifesto is proof of their reluctance as this was a legal document signed by 99 politicians to counter the decision on Brown vs. Education, because of the legality and not just the opinions of the south. This then makes the manifesto more than reluctance but a serious legal matter. Their claim matched the opinions of the south commenting that ‘segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. The southern manifesto stated that ‘It is destroying the amicable relations between the white and Negro races’, ‘It has planted hatred and suspicion where there has been heretofore friendship and understanding’ to make their argument fair and agreeable they used the idea that desegregation will bring violence and issues to the communities when there is no need. Even though some areas (especially in the north where it was more tolerant) accepted desegregation quickly. However, a lot of the south continued segregation as they didn’t agree with the Brown vs. Board of Education, thus the southern manifesto. The build-up of tension of intolerance was at little rock. Little rock school in Arkansas decided to comply with the high court’s ruling. The NAACP submitted 9 students to the previously all white school. They was verbally abused and tormented as they entered the school, President Eisenhower had to send federal troops to protect the 9 children. This suggests that ‘fear’ that was presented in the southern manifesto was proven to be true allowing anxiety for other schools and black people to comply with desegregation. President Eisenhower originated from the south and voiced intolerance himself about the decisions of Brown vs. board of education. It was commented that his silence encouraged massive resistance to applying the new law forcefully through the country as he did not agree with the verdict. It was also claimed that he voiced annoyance about appointing Earl Warren stating that it was ‘The biggest damn fool mistake I ever made’ this is evidence of his intolerance because he disapproved of Warren’s decision. Being a military man himself he was use to the segregation system and probably agreed with the idea of ‘separate but equal’. This suggests why the Supreme Court had given vague answers of when the deadline should be on desegregation because the president wasn’t happy with the decision. To conclude: there were many factors to why desegregation wasn’t immediate however; the most important factor that contributed to preventing desegregation was the south. The fear, the legal documentation created by the south, the behaviour and the powerful leaders from the south made the desegregation difficult and tense. The South’s intolerance caused the most issues, as the north complied with high court’s decision quickly as there was less intolerance.  * (2B) ‘The work of the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People (NAACP) was the most important reason for the desegregation of schools in the years 1950 to 1960’ * Explain why you agree or disagree with this view * The NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People) is an African-American civil rights organization in the United States, formed in 1909. Their mission is to ensure the political, educational, social, and economic equality of rights of all persons and to eliminate racial hatred and racial discrimination. They are the earliest organisation to aid African- Americans into equality. They have had many successes in desegregating schools and their efforts have gone far however, it is arguable that other organisations, figures and events that were more influential to desegregation in schools than the NAACP. * The NAACP had succeeded in other cases for the rights of black people however; it was the Brown vs. Board of Education that is considered NAACP’s victorious achievement. But, without the work of Thurgood marshal that was appointed by the NAACP the outcome might have been different. Other than being the first African American to serve on the Supreme Court he had won 29 out of the 32 he had faced. He was a very intelligent and stood for his rights after winning previous cases for the NAACP himself and a team of NAACP attorneys won Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. Other than the NAACP winning the case Thurgood who was part of the NAACP team, was an inspiration to the African Americans. However, the decision didn’t lead to an immediate change as there was no clear deadline. The NAACP and Marshall forgot to argue its urgency for change therefore, Brown 2 the case that was to get the urgency it needed however, the decision was vague as it stated ‘with deliberate speed’. The NAACP did succeed in the decision of desegregation but it had no action. NAACP helped all African American’s in need such as the Little Rock 9 in 1957. The NAACP submitted 9 students to attend the previously all white school Little Rock, this was an achievement as a lot of the south wasn’t and would not comply with the high court’s orders. However, this turned into a disadvantage as The 9 students was verbally abused, tormented and prevented to enter their new school. The NAACP however, did help them try and enter or submit them in different and safer schools. It wasn’t just Little Rock students that they helped enter schools but many. * It is arguable that other factors effected the desegregation of schools such as the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court had to pass the laws to gain legal equality, therefore the Brown vs. Education case without the Chief of Justice Earl Warren reaching the decision that segregation is unconstitutional. Desegregation would never have gone through. They pass the McLaurin vs. Oklahoma state regents, this was to desegregate universities. However, other cases were inspired by the efforts of the NAACP, and the outcome they reached in the Brown vs. board of Education Verdict. * However, it was the ordinary people that changed their future by joining protests and helping each other. Such as Linda Brown, if it wasn’t for Linda’s cause the case to bring desegregation to schools. Linda Brown was the Daughter to Oliver Brown, because of his annoyance that his daughter had to walk 6 blocks because of the Plessy vs. Ferguson ruling ‘separate but equal’ under the Jim Crow laws. Her long walks to school led to one of the most monumental events that happened for African Americans. However, Linda Brown was part one of the thirteen families that was recruited to Topeka (the area they lived in), the NAACP took the case for Brown and pursued his plan to desegregate schools. * To conclude: The NAACP efforts in desegregating schools were more important than the other factors that influenced desegregations. Without The NAACP providing lawyers such as Marshall and helping brown win his case, Oliver brown wouldn’t of won the case. I believe that the NAACP’s involvement in the desegregation of schools was the main reason and that’s why I agree with the statement.
Friday, January 3, 2020
Subjective vs. Objective News - 833 Words
Subjective vs. Objective News I believe that Bill’s model for the future of news reporting will better serve my search for actionable information. The issue I see with Glenn’s model for the future of journalism is that if opinionated news were to become the majority of news consumed many would take action based on the thoughts and/or ideas of the writer more than the actual evidence provided in the article. I am equipped now with the knowledge of deconstructing news media thanks to News Literacy but we cannot expect every news consumer to be able to distinguish the difference between opinionated journalism and objective journalism. I do agree with Bill that Glenn’s model of the future of news reporting holds an activist setting. But I also agree with Glenn that all Journalism is a form of activism. My opinion is that objective journalism is a lighter form of activism. What I am trying to say is that if a news consumer were to read objective journalism they would come up with their own set of ideas that weren’t inspired by the writer’s own thoughts. Which would give them the ability to take action based on their own reasoning. I personally do not believe that opinionated news should become the future of journalism. The news consumer should be able to decide which side they lean on if all the evidence is provided in the story. So I do agree with Bill Keller in the fact that if a journalist wants to write a subjective article they should reposition their article in theShow MoreRelatedClassical Vs. Constitutional Typology1223 Words  | 5 Pagesreferring to a physique which is expressed in relation to extreme types. Also, that each type could be associated with temperament (Coaley p.237-239). There are some advantages is that physiological is grounded in the hard science of biology, which uses objective, experimental methodology, it uses reliable research methods, provides strong arguments in favor of the ‘nature’ side of the mature/nurture debate, has contributed to psychologists’ understanding of a wide range of phenomena. Lastly, for the disadvantagesRead MoreThe Threat Of Tigers And Starvation Essay1278 Words  | 6 Pagesdiscovery of any new knowledge. By the same means, the concepts of addition become trivial as it is just a way to rename numbers by grouping the ones differently and calling it a different name. â€Å"Twoness†doesn’t really mean anything apart from â€Å"1+1†. Thus subtraction is the same process in reverse, and multiplication is the same renaming process as if you were to do the same addition multiple times†¦ and suddenly basic arithmetic become trivial. 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Moral guidance outside God’s truth has no objective foundation because human reasoning is filtered through subjective bias based on one’ s perception of the world that differs uniquely from any one else’s perception. According to the theologian and apologist, William Craig, â€Å"in the absence of God, that is, if God does not exist, then morality is just a human convention, that is to say, morality is wholly subjective and non-binding.†(Craig, ?). If this lacks truth than when advisingRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book Mad Max Franchise 1709 Words  | 7 PagesThese criticisms play a major role in the Fury Road story, and obviously played a role in shaping the director’s perspective of a post-apocalyptic future. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the literary criticisms of Marxism, Feminism, and New Criticism influence Mad Max characters, their stories, and the series. Body Synopsis Mad Max: Fury Road follows the protagonist Max Rockatansky as he drifts around in a post-apocalyptic Australian outback. Early on, Max is captured by a gang laterRead More Gender Discrimination at Wal-Mart Essay1397 Words  | 6 PagesThe Supreme Court case, Dukes vs. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., dealt with 1.5 million current and former female Wal-Mart employees that claim that they had been a victim of gender discrimination. The ensuing pages will discuss the specific issues that the plaintiffs encountered, followed by suggestions from a human resource manager’s stand point in rectifying adverse impact within the Wal-Mart organization. Gender Discrimination at Wal-Mart In the case of Dukes vs. Wal-Mart Stores Inc. (Dukes),
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